Bali’s history can be traced back to the Stone Age, with early cultural influences recorded through ancient artifacts and inscriptions. Bali’s culture and history cannot be understood without linking it with it’s larger sister-island JAVA.

The original Balinese people are believed to descend from Austronesian-speaking migrants who came to Bali thousands of years ago, likely from Taiwan or Southeast Asia, predating the arrival of Hindu-Javanese influence by centuries. These early settlers are linked to the broader Austronesian migrations, which spread seafaring, agricultural, and cultural knowledge across the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions, reaching as far as Madagascar and Easter Island.

1. Ancient Origins
2. Early Hinduism
3. Majahapit Empire
4. Colonial Past
5. Tourism & Modernism

1. Ancient Balinese Origins & Influence

Austronesian Migration

Evidence shows that these early Balinese communities shared cultural and linguistic roots with other Austronesian populations, characterized by a strong emphasis on agriculture, especially wet-rice farming, which remains central to Balinese society.

Distinct Cultural and Spiritual Practices

Unlike the Hinduism brought India as early as the first century and brought from Java particularly in the 11th-16th centuries, early Balinese spiritual life centered around animistic beliefs, ancestor worship, and a strong reverence for nature and spirits. While Hinduism transformed these beliefs, the integration led to Bali’s unique “Agama Hindu Dharma,” a syncretic faith combining elements of native animism and imported Hindu practices.

Subak System

The ancient Balinese also developed the subak irrigation system, a complex and community-managed water distribution system, which UNESCO recognizes as a World Heritage practice. This system reflects the cooperative and spiritually tied approach to agriculture rooted in Balinese identity long before Hindu influence.

Bali’s Linguistic Heritage

The Balinese language, part of the Malayo-Polynesian language family, retains aspects distinct from Javanese, though centuries of cultural exchange with Java have introduced some linguistic influences.

The arrival of Hindu-Javanese refugees and royalty, particularly during the 14th-16th centuries with the fall of the Majapahit Empire, introduced new religious, artistic, and architectural influences. These layered onto the existing culture, enhancing the island’s spiritual, social, and cultural fabric. The resulting Balinese identity thus draws from both indigenous Austronesian traditions and centuries of Hindu-Javanese contributions, creating a distinct, rich heritage unique to Bali.

Bali’s distinctive cultural heritage therefore began to develop significantly during the Majapahit Empire (1293 to 1520 AD). This period saw the spread of Hindu-Javanese traditions, literature, and artistic practices from Java to Bali, especially after the fall of Majapahit. The empire, led at its peak by the renowned ruler Hayam Wuruk with his prime minister Gajah Mada, expanded its influence over much of the Indonesian archipelago, including Bali, the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and parts of eastern Indonesia.

Following the empire’s gradual decline in the 15th century, a major exodus of Hindu priests, artists, intellectuals, and members of the Javanese royal family migrated to Bali. This migration helped solidify Bali as a stronghold of Hindu culture, which flourished on the island and shaped much of its present-day arts, literature, and customs.

Hinduism and Bali

The introduction of Hinduism to Bali was a gradual process influenced both by early Indian contact and, significantly, through the later influence of the Javanese Majapahit Empire. 

1. Early Indian Influence (circa 1st – 7th centuries)

Trade and Early Contact

Indian traders arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, including Bali, as early as the 1st century. They established trading routes and cultural exchange points, particularly in Sumatra and Java. These traders brought with them elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, leading to the early adoption of Hindu and Buddhist iconography, social customs, and Sanskrit inscriptions. By the 7th century, these influences had extended to Bali, where Sanskrit inscriptions have been found, signifying the early spread of Hindu religious ideas and practices.

Balinese Adaptation of Hinduism

Early Hindu practices in Bali were adapted to local animistic and ancestor-worshipping beliefs, creating a unique blend of Hindu-Balinese spirituality that differed from Indian Hinduism. However, these early influences were relatively limited in scope and did not establish the full framework of Hindu culture in Bali.

2. The Role of the Majapahit Empire (14th – 16th centuries)

Majapahit Conquest (1343)

The Majapahit Empire in Java, particularly under the leadership of Gajah Mada, launched a series of conquests throughout the archipelago, including Bali. In 1343, the Majapahit forces formally conquered Bali, bringing with them a stronger and more structured form of Hinduism and Javanese culture. This conquest established Bali as a vassal state of the Majapahit Empire and led to increased immigration of Javanese Hindu nobles, priests, artists, and intellectuals to Bali.

Exodus of Hindu-Javanese Elites

As Islam spread in Java in the 16th century, particularly with the rise of the Demak Sultanate, a large-scale migration of Hindu-Javanese elites, including royal families, priests, artists, and scholars, occurred. These individuals sought refuge in Bali, bringing with them advanced practices of Hinduism and further influencing Balinese culture. The result was a deepening of Hindu rituals, social structures, and art forms, with Bali becoming a sanctuary for the preservation of Majapahit Hindu culture.

3. Lasting Cultural and Religious Impact

Formation of Balinese Hinduism

The integration of Indian-origin Hinduism and the structured practices of the Majapahit Hindu-Javanese form created the unique Agama Hindu Dharma practiced in Bali. This version of Hinduism adapted Indian deities, Javanese philosophical principles, and local Balinese animistic practices into a cohesive system.

While Indian traders introduced Hindu elements to Bali, the Majapahit Empire’s conquest and subsequent Hindu-Javanese migrations were crucial in establishing a more organized and culturally pervasive form of Hinduism. It was the Majapahit influence that solidified Hinduism in Bali’s social structure, religious practices, and arts, shaping it into the unique form seen today.

The Majahapit in Bali

In the 16th century, Bali became a refuge for Hindu-Javanese people as Islam rapidly spread through Java, culminating in significant changes to Balinese society, culture, religion, and governance. This influx of Hindu-Javanese people following the collapse of the Hindu Majapahit Empire in Java created an indelible influence on Bali. Here’s a breakdown of the migration’s significance:

Historical Context of Migration

Fall of Majapahit in Java

The Majapahit Empire, a dominant Hindu kingdom in East Java, began to decline in the early 16th century as Islam gained influence. By 1520, Islamic sultanates replaced Hindu dynasties across Java, pushing Hindu nobles, priests, artists, and warriors to Bali. Many sought to preserve their religious, artistic, and cultural practices, seeing Bali as a safe haven for their Hindu traditions.

Formation of Balinese Kingdoms

Bali’s existing kingdoms—such as those in Klungkung and Gianyar—were deeply influenced by the Majapahit culture, literature, governance systems, and religious practices. This migration fortified these kingdoms, eventually establishing a structured society where Bali served as a custodian of the Majapahit Hindu-Javanese legacy.

Majahapit Influence on Balinese Culture and Society

Hinduism and the Caste System

The Hindu-Javanese brought a refined caste system to Bali, categorizing society into distinct roles and responsibilities. This adaptation of Hinduism to local traditions led to the Balinese “Catur Varna” system, akin to the Hindu caste system but distinct in its integration with indigenous Balinese customs. The four major castes—Brahmana (priests), Ksatria (warriors), Wesia (merchants), and Sudra (farmers)—were adapted with flexibility in Bali but still held a significant social and spiritual role.

Bali Caste System

Religious and Ritual Significance

Hindu-Javanese priests, such as Dang Hyang Nirartha, introduced religious concepts, rituals, and sacred architecture. Nirartha, for instance, built iconic temples like Uluwatu and Tanah Lot, which became central to Balinese Hindu worship and reinforced Bali’s temple-based spiritual landscape. The importance of pujawali ceremonies, honoring Hindu deities through elaborate temple rituals, took root during this era.

Governance and Arts

Balinese Kings and Governance

The Majapahit influence strengthened Bali’s governance systems. Kings in Bali emulated Javanese practices of centralized rule, with Klungkung becoming the paramount kingdom, presiding over lesser realms. The “Dalem” kings in Bali upheld Hindu law and ritual practices that were deeply intertwined with governance, making the king both a political and spiritual leader.

Cultural Flourishing

This period of Hindu-Javanese migration sparked a golden age in Balinese arts. Dance, music, sculpture, and literature were influenced by Javanese Hindu epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Additionally, Bali’s iconic shadow puppet theater (wayang kulit) and traditional dances were adaptations of Javanese performance art, blending Hindu religious themes with local Balinese stories.

Long-Lasting Legacy of the Majahapit

Cultural Preservation

While the spread of Islam in Java nearly eradicated Hindu practices there, Bali preserved and adapted Hinduism, creating a unique “Agama Hindu Dharma” tradition. This religion, distinct from Indian Hinduism, integrated local animistic beliefs, reverence for nature, and ancestor worship, which remain central to Balinese life today.

Resilience of Balinese Identity

The migration from Java allowed Bali to become a last stronghold of the Majapahit legacy, imbuing Balinese culture with a sense of historical pride and spiritual heritage. The caste system and religious traditions established by the Hindu-Javanese continue to shape Balinese society, temple rituals, and village governance, making Bali an exceptional case in the Indonesian archipelago.

This significant period remains vital in understanding Bali’s religious practices, social structure, and its lasting role as a center of Hindu culture within Indonesia. The integration of Javanese traditions provided a resilient foundation that has allowed Bali to preserve and celebrate its unique heritage across centuries.

4. Dutch Colonial Expansion in Indonesia and Its Impact on Bali

The Dutch began their expansion into the Indonesian archipelago in the early 17th century, initially focusing on Java and the Spice Islands (Maluku) to control lucrative spice trade routes. Through the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and later direct rule by the Dutch government, they gradually formed the Dutch East Indies. However, Bali remained largely independent and resistant to colonial control well into the early 20th century.

A Stalemate in Bali

Unlike Java, Bali’s fiercely autonomous kingdoms consistently pushed back against Dutch encroachment. From the 1840s onwards, the Dutch launched several military campaigns — including their 1846 invasion of Buleleng in North Bali — but the Balinese responded with fierce resistance. This resulted in a political and military stalemate, and for decades, Bali remained outside full Dutch control. The Dutch instead turned their attention to easier targets across the archipelago, postponing deeper involvement in Bali.

Maritime Conflicts and Renewed Dutch Interest

By the early 1900s, however, Dutch patience had worn thin. A growing number of incidents involving shipwrecks off Bali’s southern coast — followed by the looting of cargo and passengers by local forces — gave the Dutch what they considered a justification for reasserting authority. These provocations, whether exaggerated or legitimate, led to renewed military intervention.

The Tragic Puputan of 1906 – Badung

In 1906, the Dutch launched a full-scale military operation against the southern kingdom of Badung (present-day Denpasar). Rather than surrender, the Raja of Badung, along with his court, nobles, and followers — nearly 3,000 people — prepared for puputan, a ritual mass suicide. Dressed in ceremonial white, they marched silently toward the Dutch. Following tradition, a priest killed the Raja to prevent his capture, after which the Balinese turned on themselves and each other, killing one another with kris daggers in a collective act of sacrifice and defiance. The Dutch barely fired a shot. This self-inflicted mass death left the colonial troops stunned and horrified — a psychological and symbolic resistance, profoundly different from later armed confrontations.

The Puputan of 1908 – Klungkung

A second mass puputan followed in 1908, when Dutch troops moved to annex the royal court of Klungkung — the island’s spiritual and political center. Again, the Balinese aristocracy chose death over submission. These two events — marked by extraordinary symbolism and cultural significance — became foundational moments in the modern identity of Bali. To this day, puputan is remembered not as defeat, but as a sacred expression of honor, loyalty, and resistance.

“Preserve, Don’t Destroy”: A Colonial Shift

Shaken by global condemnation and the trauma of the puputans, the Dutch opted for a new approach. Instead of enforcing Java-style colonial bureaucracy, they repositioned themselves as protectors of Balinese culture. Bali was marketed as a “living museum” — a repository of pre-Islamic, Hindu-Javanese tradition. This contradiction — colonization wrapped in cultural preservation — attracted early anthropologists, artists, and romantic travelers. It laid the groundwork for what would eventually become Bali’s first wave of tourism.

World War II: Japanese Invasion and Nationalist Awakening

In 1942, during World War II, Japan invaded Bali as part of its rapid conquest of Southeast Asia. Dutch forces were quickly overrun, and Japanese rule over the island began. The occupation was brutal, marked by forced labor, food shortages, and strict control. Yet it also had a profound and unexpected consequence: it shattered Dutch authority and allowed nationalist movements to grow.

Importantly, Sukarno — who had been imprisoned by the Dutch — was released during the Japanese occupation and allowed to organize politically. Japanese propaganda encouraged pan-Asian unity and independence, helping to shape a growing Indonesian nationalist consciousness — including among Balinese youth.

The Japanese occupation was short but pivotal: it broke the illusion of European dominance and prepared the ground for Indonesia’s next transformation.

1945 Declaration of Independence

When Japan surrendered in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesia’s independence on August 17. But the Dutch, eager to restore control, returned with military force in 1947 — backed in part by U.S. Marshall Plan funds.

The Puputan Margarana – 1946

One of the final and most symbolic acts of resistance occurred in 1946 in central Bali. I Gusti Ngurah Rai, a Balinese nationalist commander, led his forces in what would become the Puputan Margarana. Unlike the 1906 puputan, which was a ritual collective suicide, the 1946 puputan was an armed military charge — a direct assault on Dutch troops, in full knowledge it would end in death. All of Rai’s men were killed, and he became a national hero. Bali’s international airport now bears his name.

Global Pressure and Dutch Withdrawal

Between 1945 and 1949, the Dutch failed to regain full control. Indonesian resistance, both political and military, remained strong — and international opinion shifted. When it became known that the Dutch were using U.S. Marshall Plan funds to finance military operations in Indonesia, the United States pressured the Netherlands to cease its campaign.

Indonesian Sovereignty – 1949

In December 1949, the Netherlands officially recognized Indonesian independence. Bali was later integrated into the republic as a province in 1958.

From Sukarno to Suharto: Geopolitics and Development

Sukarno, Indonesia’s first president, positioned the country as a non-aligned power during the Cold War. He resisted both Western and Soviet influence and promoted a vision of Indonesian unity and independence. While admired by many in the Global South, his anti-imperialist stance and nationalization of foreign businesses made him unpopular with the United States.

Indonesia’s vast natural resources made it a geopolitical prize. In 1965, a coup and counter-coup — with alleged CIA backing — brought Suharto to power. Suharto aligned Indonesia with Western economic interests and received significant funding from the World Bank and IMF.

Under his New Order regime, massive infrastructure and tourism development projects were launched — especially in Bali, which became the flagship destination of Indonesia’s economic modernization. This marked the beginning of the island’s transformation into one of the world’s most visited cultural and spiritual tourism hubs.

By 1949, international pressure and the Indonesian National Revolution forced the Netherlands to formally recognize Indonesia’s independence. Bali became part of the Republic of Indonesia, and it was fully integrated into the nation as a province in 1958.